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Refinement of welfare through development of a quantitative system for assessment of lifetime experience
- S Wolfensohn, S Sharpe, I Hall, S Lawrence, S Kitchen, M Dennis
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- Journal:
- Animal Welfare / Volume 24 / Issue 2 / May 2015
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 January 2023, pp. 139-149
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This paper proposes a system that uses intrinsic study data to provide a clear visualisation of the stresses involved during the animal's life history that can be applied to all types of studies, even those not requiring invasive techniques. Thus, it provides an opportunity for researchers to identify and refine key events which impact on the welfare of an animal, and to explain clearly the totality of any necessary harms when justifying the research. Assessment of animal welfare depends on measurement of a number of parameters which will vary according to species, the animal's environment and the scientific procedure, all of which are inter-related. Currently, there are few tools to assess the effects of lifetime events on welfare or even, in some cases, to recognise that they have an impact on the level of suffering. A matrix to assess the combined effects of environment, experimental and contingent events on welfare has been applied, retrospectively, to programmes of work involving macaques (Macaca mulatta and M. fascicularis). Lifetime records, available for animals from their birth in the breeding colony through to experimental use in vaccine efficacy evaluation studies, were analysed as a robust validation test for the assessment matrix and refinement of the way in which information on these events is captured. A meaningful assessment method is required prospectively for project licence applications and retrospectively for licence review or decisions on re-use. The analysis will provide information that would support the application of refinements that would optimally enhance the lives of experimental animals.
Science Programs for a 2-m Class Telescope at Dome C, Antarctica: PILOT, the Pathfinder for an International Large Optical Telescope
- M. G. Burton, J. S. Lawrence, M. C. B. Ashley, J. A. Bailey, C. Blake, T. R. Bedding, J. Bland-Hawthorn, I. A. Bond, K. Glazebrook, M. G. Hidas, G. Lewis, S. N. Longmore, S. T. Maddison, S. Mattila, V. Minier, S. D. Ryder, R. Sharp, C. H. Smith, J. W. V. Storey, C. G. Tinney, P. Tuthill, A. J. Walsh, W. Walsh, M. Whiting, T. Wong, D. Woods, P. C. M. Yock
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- Journal:
- Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia / Volume 22 / Issue 3 / 2005
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 05 March 2013, pp. 199-235
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The cold, dry, and stable air above the summits of the Antarctic plateau provides the best ground-based observing conditions from optical to sub-millimetre wavelengths to be found on the Earth. Pathfinder for an International Large Optical Telescope (PILOT) is a proposed 2 m telescope, to be built at Dome C in Antarctica, able to exploit these conditions for conducting astronomy at optical and infrared wavelengths. While PILOT is intended as a pathfinder towards the construction of future grand-design facilities, it will also be able to undertake a range of fundamental science investigations in its own right. This paper provides the performance specifications for PILOT, including its instrumentation. It then describes the kinds of projects that it could best conduct. These range from planetary science to the search for other solar systems, from star formation within the Galaxy to the star formation history of the Universe, and from gravitational lensing caused by exo-planets to that produced by the cosmic web of dark matter. PILOT would be particularly powerful for wide-field imaging at infrared wavelengths, achieving near diffraction-limited performance with simple tip–tilt wavefront correction. PILOT would also be capable of near diffraction-limited performance in the optical wavebands, as well be able to open new wavebands for regular ground-based observation, in the mid-IR from 17 to 40 μm and in the sub-millimetre at 200 μm.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. 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Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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Appendix A - Classification system of ferns and lycophytes
- Edited by Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Joanne M. Sharpe
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- Fern Ecology
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List of contributors
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- Fern Ecology
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10 - Current and future directions in fern ecology
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- By Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Klaus Mehltreter, Instituto de Ecología, Joanne M. Sharpe, Sharplex Services
- Edited by Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Joanne M. Sharpe
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Summary
Introduction
The ecology of ferns is a rapidly growing discipline that offers new and exciting insights into general ecological principles and applications. Progress has been made in studying fern biogeography, population dynamics, natural resource use, disturbance responses, species interactions and links with humans (Table 10.1). In this concluding chapter, we explore the lessons learned about each of these topics and how they clarify the ecological role of ferns. We then raise some unanswered questions that might become the foci for future research on fern ecology and improve the integration of ferns into general studies of ecology.
Ferns (and lycophytes) differ from seed plants in fundamental ways. Ferns have a different evolutionary background, phenology, nutrient acquisition patterns, adaptations to xeric environments, responses to disturbance, interactions with fungi and animals and invasion patterns that provide an excellent contrast to seed plants. However, ferns also share fundamental similarities with seed plants, especially herbaceous perennials. Ferns have similar physiological pathways of energy capture and nutrient distribution and share some common traits such as colonization abilities, habitat specificity, leaf function, growth patterns, vegetative propagation, population dynamics, species interactions (e.g., shading) and mycorrhizal infection. Examining differences and similarities between ferns and seed plants is one useful approach to the rapidly expanding field of fern ecology.
Biogeography: dispersal, habitats and diversity
Ferns have only one potentially long distance dispersal phase (spores) while seed plants have two (pollen and seeds). The ecological implications of these contrasting dispersal modes are unclear.
Plate section
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Photo credits
- Edited by Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Joanne M. Sharpe
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6 - Ferns, disturbance and succession
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- By Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Joanne M. Sharpe, Sharplex Services
- Edited by Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Joanne M. Sharpe
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Summary
Key points
1. Ferns often colonize habitats disturbed by tectonic activity, wind, water, fire and humans.
2. Fern dispersal into disturbed habitats can result from long distance movement of spores but is usually by short distance spore dispersal or vegetative expansion of nearby plants.
3. Rapid establishment and dense growth can make ferns competitive with other vascular plants through light reduction and nutrient uptake or immobilization. Fern thickets can delay successional transitions but ferns also provide regeneration sites for other species and stabilize slopes. Fern influences may vary across environmental resource (e.g., light, water, nutrients) and topographic gradients.
4. Ferns can have important roles in the restoration of disturbed ecosystems.
Introduction
A typical image of fern habitat is a wet, shady forest untouched by disturbance. In fact, many ferns colonize recently disturbed and exposed areas such as scoured riverbanks (Reudink et al.,2005) or the uprooted pits, mounds and trunks of fallen trees (Peterson et al., 1990; Nadkarni and Wheelwright, 2000). Ferns tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions (Hemp, 2001), and some species can colonize such highly disturbed habitats as lava flows, dunes, landslides or floodplains as well as areas of forests that have been damaged by burning, ice storms, hurricanes or logging (Walker et al., 1996b; Barson, 1997; Russell et al., 1998; Arens and Sánchez Baracaldo, 1998, 2000; Woods, 2002). One reason some ferns readily colonize recent disturbances is that they have widely dispersed spores that reach even the most remote islands (see Chapter 2; Carlquist, 1980).
Index
- Edited by Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Joanne M. Sharpe
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Frontmatter
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Contents
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1 - Ecological importance of ferns
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- By Joanne M. Sharpe, Sharplex Services, Klaus Mehltreter, Instituto de Ecología, Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada
- Edited by Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Joanne M. Sharpe
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Summary
Introduction
Ferns immediately capture the imagination of all who are fortunate enough to notice them. With their large, highly dissected and shiny green leaves, ferns are so visually appealing that many are sold as ornamentals. Most moist woodlands will have a number of fern species blanketing the understory with their pungent foliage. In tropical woodlands, ferns are often at eye level or above, providing an aesthetic and delicate subcanopy. Even in arid lands or on newly exposed surfaces such as burns, clear-cuts or landslides, ferns can be present and sometimes dominant, catching your full attention as you push through fern thickets or get snagged by their spines. Beyond their immediate visual appeal, ferns are curious objects. How do plants of such ancient origin persist in the modern world? How can something so fragile survive trampling, burning, logging or grazing? Ferns and lycophytes were long considered as mystical plants, because people did not understand how they could reproduce without ever producing a flower, a fruit or a seed (Moran, 2004). In this book, we address the mystique that surrounds ferns by exploring fern ecology, or how ferns relate to their environment. Throughout the world, whenever ferns are the focus of ecological research, important and often surprising findings emerge.
We present four approaches to fern ecology. First, we provide a conceptual synthesis of the rapidly expanding field of fern ecology in order to establish a framework for future research and to encourage interdisciplinary approaches to studies of ferns.
Preface
- Edited by Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Joanne M. Sharpe
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Summary
There are many ways to appreciate ferns and lycophytes. We admire their shapes, from tiny, filmy ferns on tree trunks, to lacy maidenhair ferns in rock crevices, to sturdy tree ferns with their huge, dissected leaves. We wonder at the beauty of their leaves that vary from subtle shades of green to gray, pale yellow, reddish or even iridescent blue. As we become more acquainted with ferns, the fascination deepens and the questions begin. Some of the first questions are about fern habitats. How do they survive in the deep shade of forest understories? On flooded banks of streams? On wind-swept mountain tops? On hot, vertical rock faces? Why are they so abundant on tropical mountains and oceanic islands? Questions then arise about fern growth. How do they survive drought or freezing temperatures? How do they reproduce? How old are they? What is a spore and that always elusive little “gametophyte”? We also ponder how the presence of ferns impacts other organisms. Do ferns compete with seed plants? Do they get eaten by herbivores? Finally, how do humans interact with ferns? Which species are edible or have medicinal qualities? Why are some ferns a nuisance to us? What makes them weedy ferns? We, the editors of this book, have each pondered these questions, both as people who are fascinated by the beauty and variety of ferns and as scientists whose job it is to question how the natural world is assembled, collate information about it and synthesize what is known.
Glossary
- Edited by Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Joanne M. Sharpe
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- Book:
- Fern Ecology
- Published online:
- 05 June 2012
- Print publication:
- 03 June 2010, pp 407-428
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Appendix C - Geological timescale
- Edited by Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Joanne M. Sharpe
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- Book:
- Fern Ecology
- Published online:
- 05 June 2012
- Print publication:
- 03 June 2010, pp 406-406
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Fern Ecology
- Edited by Klaus Mehltreter, Lawrence R. Walker, Joanne M. Sharpe
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- Published online:
- 05 June 2012
- Print publication:
- 03 June 2010
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Ferns are an integral part of the world's flora, appreciated for their beauty as ornamentals, problematic as invaders and endangered by human interference. They often dominate forest understories but also colonize open areas, invade waterways and survive in nutrient-poor wastelands and eroded pastures. Presented here is the first comprehensive summary of fern ecology, with worldwide examples from Siberia to the islands of Hawaii. Topics include a brief history of the ecological study of ferns, a global survey of fern biogeography, fern population dynamics, the role of ferns in ecosystem nutrient cycles, their adaptations to xeric environments and future directions in fern ecology. Fully illustrated concepts and processes provide a framework for future research and utilization of ferns for graduate students and professionals in ecology, conservation and land management.
Dichotic Perception: Evidence for Right Hemisphere Dysfunction in Affective Psychosis
- Allan Yozawitz, Gerard Bruder, Samuel Sutton, Lawrence Sharpe, Barry Gurland, Joseph Fleiss, Louis Costa
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- Journal:
- The British Journal of Psychiatry / Volume 135 / Issue 3 / September 1979
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 29 January 2018, pp. 224-237
- Print publication:
- September 1979
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The association between lateralized hemispheric dysfunction and psychiatric diagnosis was investigated with a measure of summation of dichotic clicks and with a dichotic competing message task. Ear asymmetries of affective psychotic patients were similar to those of right temporal lesioned controls and differed from those of schizophrenic patients and normal controls. In contrast, schizophrenic patients did not display abnormal auditory perceptual asymmetries.
The effect of the microbial flora on the flavour and free fatty acid composition of cheddar cheese*
- B. Reiter, T. F. Fryer, A. Pickering, Helen R. Chapman, R. C. Lawrence, M. Elisabeth Sharpe
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- Journal:
- Journal of Dairy Research / Volume 34 / Issue 3 / October 1967
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 01 June 2009, pp. 257-272
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- October 1967
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Comparisons were made of the flavour, free fatty acids and bacterial flora of commercial cheese made at different factories and experimental cheese made under aseptic conditions: (i) with δ-gluconic acid lactone instead of starter, (ii) with starter only, (iii) with starter and added floras derived from the curd of the commercial cheeses (reference flora cheeses).
Comparison of the bacterial flora of commercial and reference flora cheeses showed that replication of organisms was better with some reference floras than with others. In all the cheeses the lactobacilli increased in numbers during maturation, whilst other groups of organisms died out.
The amount of acetic acid present was influenced by the starter and by the lactobacilli. Single-strain starters produced some acetic acid, most of which was lost in the whey; commercial starters produced considerably more, due to the presence in them of Streptococcus diacetilactis. Later in maturation lactobacilli increased the acetic acid content, a greater increase being observed with homo-than with heterofermentative strains.
The initial levels of butyric and higher fatty acids in the milk varied with source of the milk and with the season, summer milk having higher levels than winter milk. During cheese-making a slight increase of these acids occurred in every cheese made with starter and a further small increase occurred during ripening. However, there was no increase in the content of these acids in the cheese made with δ-gluconic acid lactone, indicating that lactic acid bacteria were weakly hydrolysing the milk fat.
Flavour trials showed that Cheddar flavour was present not only in the reference flora and commercial cheese, but also in the cheese made with starter only. Different starters produced different intensities of flavour; one strain produced an intense fruity off-flavour. Cheeses made with δ-gluconic acid lactone were devoid of cheese flavour.